Contact and Conflict: The Greeks in Ancient Cyrenaica
The project “Contact and Conflict: The Greeks in Ancient Cyrenaica” aims at studying a time and a place in the history of the Mediterranean that has not received the attention it deserves. For 600 years a flourishing Greek culture existed in today’s Eastern Libya. The area was dominated by Cyrene, a Greek colony founded in the 7th century BC, which in turn founded several Greek cities in this part of North Africa known as Cyrenaica. With a regional focus the project is based on an analysis of the combined historical and archaeological sources. Such a comprehensive study has not been undertaken before, unlike research on the Greek colonies in Sicily, Southern Italy and Southern France. An analysis of the networks through which Cyrenaica was connected to the rest of the Greek world – trade and economy as well as religion and culture in a broad sense – is of particular importance. The Greek presence in Cyrenaica is characterized by both contact and conflict with the Libyans who already lived there and this will be studied. At a time when migration across the Mediterranean goes from North Africa to Europe the project seeks to shed light on the fact that in Antiquity it went in the other direction with large numbers of Greeks settling in Libya. With the current troubled situation in the country, when no archaeological projects are active and ancient sites are threatened by destruction and looting, it is paramount to highlight the cultural heritage of ancient Greek Cyrenaica.
Final report
Aims, development and implementation of the project
The project aimed at investigating cultural encounters and conflicts between Greeks and Libyans in ancient Cyrenaica. This part of the ancient world has long been overlooked in historical research where a strong focus has lain on what can be termed the main area of the Greek world, primarily the Aegean. Although the Greek colonization of ancient Libya is well-known, this North African part of the history of the ancient Greeks is often missing. The project took this discrepancy as a starting point with the aim of highlighting an area which during antiquity constituted a very important part of the Greek world. At the same time, Libya was a border zone on the edge of the known world. The Greeks who lived in the cities there were surrounded by Libyan tribes who in many cases lived in a very different way from that of the Greeks.
The project was based on a close reading and analysis of the account in the written sources of the historical development in Cyrenaica. The foundation of Cyrene is dated to the mid-seventh century BC and it stands out because it is the best described Greek colonial foundation. First and foremost among the sources is Herodotus, but besides his detailed account there are three victory odes composed by Pindar for Cyrenaican victors in the Pythian games at Delphi, all treating Cyrene with interesting information about the mythological background to the city. To this can be added numerous passages in several ancient authors from the classical to the Roman period as well as a large epigraphic material of inscriptions from Cyrene and other cities.
Building on the information in the written sources an overview was done of the archaeological work undertaken in Cyrenaica since the 1860s. A particularly intense period of field work in the region occurred during the Italian occupation (1911–1943) when large-scale excavations took place, and archaeology became an important tool for the propaganda of the Fascist regime. More than 150 years of archaeology in Libya has given us a good picture of the ancient cities but also of the cemeteries, in particular the vast necropoleis outside Cyrene.
The project results are primarily planned to be published in a monograph in which the archaeological overview will give the reader a good understanding of the places where the Greeks settled and how the cities were laid out. In different sections the results from numerous excavations will be presented thematically, such as architecture and city planning; religious rites based on finds of votive offerings; art such as sculpture, figurines and pottery; the economy from the perspective of comparisons between local and imported pottery. The economic history in particular will to a large extent be based on the archaeological finds (especially pottery, but also coins) set into a wider historical context.
During the implementation the project evolved and changed insofar as it was decided to reduce the time frame of the period studied to cover only the Archaic and Classical periods. This was in line with suggestions made at the half time meeting with RJ. The Hellenistic period was studied on a more general level but is not planned to be included in the volume under preparation.
The project has been anchored at the Swedish Institute at Athens and the original idea was to spend a large part of the project time in Athens in order to benefit from the excellent research library facilities at the many foreign schools in the city. Due to the pandemic, it was not possible to spend as much time in Athens as envisaged, but the planned work was still done thanks to the extension of the project time by one year. Among the important libraries where I worked I would particularly like to mention The Nordic Library at Athens; the libraries at The American School of Classical Studies at Athens and The British School at Athens; The Bodleian Library, University of Oxford; and the Bibliothek der Kommission für Alte Geschichte und Epigraphik, Deutsches Archäologisches Institut, Munich.
As the title of the project reveals, the aim was primarily to study both contact and conflict between Greeks and Libyans. A large part of the so-called Libyan story in Herodotus constitutes an ethnographical account of the tribes in the area as well as the Libyan geography. The account is interesting as he makes clear distinctions of these ‘barbarians’, the collective term the Greeks used for foreign peoples. Some Libyan tribes live like the Greeks, that is they are sedentary farmers, whereas others are nomads or have a seminomadic, agropastoral lifestyle. It is clear that the Greek presence has influenced the tribes closest to Cyrene, and here one can probably speak of some kind of symbiosis or convivencia where the different peoples enjoyed a fruitful exchange with one and other. These questions are discussed and analyzed in a section of the monograph, but is also the theme for a special study in the shape of a chapter I was invited to contribute to a volume on Greeks and indigenous peoples in colonial situations to be published by Cambridge University Press in 2026.
A debated question in scholarship is to what extent the Greeks in the colonies mixed with the indigenous peoples. That it happened is certain and it is presumed that Greek men arrived and took local wives and thus made alliances with local families. If one studies the situation closer a more complex picture emerges; Greek women must also have been present from the outset due to the importance of certain religious rituals which could only be performed by women, such as the cult of Demeter and Persephone which was very important in Cyrene, a city famous for its rich harvests. I argue that whole families came and settled in Cyrene already in the first phase of the colonization. In the mixed marriages the Greek culture was the dominant and if one studies the grave goods from the cemeteries only Greek objects are found. On the contrary, epigraphic studies have demonstrated that Libyan names were fairly common at Cyrene, indicating a Libyan origin of a part of the population even if they had become Hellenized and spoke Greek.
Conflicts characterized much of the political history, both between Greeks and Libyans and between different groups of Greeks. Until the mid-fifth century BC Cyrene was a monarchy ruled by the same dynasty that founded the city. Fifty years after the foundation the Delphic oracle issued a prophecy inviting ‘all Greeks’ to come and settle in Libya. Thus, the Greek population grew quickly, and this led to conflicts with the Libyans who turned to Egypt for help but were defeated by the Cyrenaeans. There was also friction between the Greeks and Herodotus writes about a violent conflict in the mid-sixth century BC between king Arcesilas II and his brothers, resulting in his brothers leaving Cyrene and founding a city of their own, Barce, further to the west, with the help of the Libyans. They also encouraged the Libyans to revolt against the king.
Political reforms to reduce the power of the kings were introduced, but already at the end of the sixth century king Arcesilas III had regained much of the power. At this time Cyrenaica came under the dominance of the Persian empire. In the research undertaken in the project, these historical episodes have been particularly studied as they not only highlight conflict between Greeks and Libyans but also between the Greeks themselves.
Results and conclusions
The integration of historical sources and the associated ancient historical research with archaeology was one of the project’s strengths from the beginning and this is also where its greatest scholarly value lies. For long a modern, combined analysis of both the historical sources and the archaeological material from Cyrenaica has been missing, and the purpose of the planned monograph is to fill this void. Such an approach proved particularly valuable in the analysis of the economic history of Cyrenaica which has led to important results. Where earlier historical studies focused completely on written sources, archaeological material has been integrated in the analysis, building on the previous research undertaken by the project leader on transport amphorae from Cyrenaica and maritime trade. Where earlier archaeological research primarily focused on the imported fine wares, the study of amphorae and other coarse wares have been added giving a more complete picture of Cyrenaican trade and economy.
Another result of the project is the stress on peaceful co-existence between the Greeks and the Libyans, despite the many conflicts. They largely depended on each other even though the sources like Herodotus tend to stress differences. A related result is the clarification of just how divided the Greeks instead were and how this often led to fighting and civil war. The heterogenous group of Greeks in Libya is characterized more by division than unity. The Libyans were clever to use the division and support one side or another in conflicts among the Greeks. Through a careful analysis the project has contributed to the nuancing of historiographical research and how we view the Greek interaction with indigenous peoples in colonial situations.
The project research has been presented in several seminars, lectures and at a conference with more lectures planned for this year. Writing up the above-mentioned chapter and the monograph now takes priority. Outreach has been undertaken in an article and more such articles are planned.
The project aimed at investigating cultural encounters and conflicts between Greeks and Libyans in ancient Cyrenaica. This part of the ancient world has long been overlooked in historical research where a strong focus has lain on what can be termed the main area of the Greek world, primarily the Aegean. Although the Greek colonization of ancient Libya is well-known, this North African part of the history of the ancient Greeks is often missing. The project took this discrepancy as a starting point with the aim of highlighting an area which during antiquity constituted a very important part of the Greek world. At the same time, Libya was a border zone on the edge of the known world. The Greeks who lived in the cities there were surrounded by Libyan tribes who in many cases lived in a very different way from that of the Greeks.
The project was based on a close reading and analysis of the account in the written sources of the historical development in Cyrenaica. The foundation of Cyrene is dated to the mid-seventh century BC and it stands out because it is the best described Greek colonial foundation. First and foremost among the sources is Herodotus, but besides his detailed account there are three victory odes composed by Pindar for Cyrenaican victors in the Pythian games at Delphi, all treating Cyrene with interesting information about the mythological background to the city. To this can be added numerous passages in several ancient authors from the classical to the Roman period as well as a large epigraphic material of inscriptions from Cyrene and other cities.
Building on the information in the written sources an overview was done of the archaeological work undertaken in Cyrenaica since the 1860s. A particularly intense period of field work in the region occurred during the Italian occupation (1911–1943) when large-scale excavations took place, and archaeology became an important tool for the propaganda of the Fascist regime. More than 150 years of archaeology in Libya has given us a good picture of the ancient cities but also of the cemeteries, in particular the vast necropoleis outside Cyrene.
The project results are primarily planned to be published in a monograph in which the archaeological overview will give the reader a good understanding of the places where the Greeks settled and how the cities were laid out. In different sections the results from numerous excavations will be presented thematically, such as architecture and city planning; religious rites based on finds of votive offerings; art such as sculpture, figurines and pottery; the economy from the perspective of comparisons between local and imported pottery. The economic history in particular will to a large extent be based on the archaeological finds (especially pottery, but also coins) set into a wider historical context.
During the implementation the project evolved and changed insofar as it was decided to reduce the time frame of the period studied to cover only the Archaic and Classical periods. This was in line with suggestions made at the half time meeting with RJ. The Hellenistic period was studied on a more general level but is not planned to be included in the volume under preparation.
The project has been anchored at the Swedish Institute at Athens and the original idea was to spend a large part of the project time in Athens in order to benefit from the excellent research library facilities at the many foreign schools in the city. Due to the pandemic, it was not possible to spend as much time in Athens as envisaged, but the planned work was still done thanks to the extension of the project time by one year. Among the important libraries where I worked I would particularly like to mention The Nordic Library at Athens; the libraries at The American School of Classical Studies at Athens and The British School at Athens; The Bodleian Library, University of Oxford; and the Bibliothek der Kommission für Alte Geschichte und Epigraphik, Deutsches Archäologisches Institut, Munich.
As the title of the project reveals, the aim was primarily to study both contact and conflict between Greeks and Libyans. A large part of the so-called Libyan story in Herodotus constitutes an ethnographical account of the tribes in the area as well as the Libyan geography. The account is interesting as he makes clear distinctions of these ‘barbarians’, the collective term the Greeks used for foreign peoples. Some Libyan tribes live like the Greeks, that is they are sedentary farmers, whereas others are nomads or have a seminomadic, agropastoral lifestyle. It is clear that the Greek presence has influenced the tribes closest to Cyrene, and here one can probably speak of some kind of symbiosis or convivencia where the different peoples enjoyed a fruitful exchange with one and other. These questions are discussed and analyzed in a section of the monograph, but is also the theme for a special study in the shape of a chapter I was invited to contribute to a volume on Greeks and indigenous peoples in colonial situations to be published by Cambridge University Press in 2026.
A debated question in scholarship is to what extent the Greeks in the colonies mixed with the indigenous peoples. That it happened is certain and it is presumed that Greek men arrived and took local wives and thus made alliances with local families. If one studies the situation closer a more complex picture emerges; Greek women must also have been present from the outset due to the importance of certain religious rituals which could only be performed by women, such as the cult of Demeter and Persephone which was very important in Cyrene, a city famous for its rich harvests. I argue that whole families came and settled in Cyrene already in the first phase of the colonization. In the mixed marriages the Greek culture was the dominant and if one studies the grave goods from the cemeteries only Greek objects are found. On the contrary, epigraphic studies have demonstrated that Libyan names were fairly common at Cyrene, indicating a Libyan origin of a part of the population even if they had become Hellenized and spoke Greek.
Conflicts characterized much of the political history, both between Greeks and Libyans and between different groups of Greeks. Until the mid-fifth century BC Cyrene was a monarchy ruled by the same dynasty that founded the city. Fifty years after the foundation the Delphic oracle issued a prophecy inviting ‘all Greeks’ to come and settle in Libya. Thus, the Greek population grew quickly, and this led to conflicts with the Libyans who turned to Egypt for help but were defeated by the Cyrenaeans. There was also friction between the Greeks and Herodotus writes about a violent conflict in the mid-sixth century BC between king Arcesilas II and his brothers, resulting in his brothers leaving Cyrene and founding a city of their own, Barce, further to the west, with the help of the Libyans. They also encouraged the Libyans to revolt against the king.
Political reforms to reduce the power of the kings were introduced, but already at the end of the sixth century king Arcesilas III had regained much of the power. At this time Cyrenaica came under the dominance of the Persian empire. In the research undertaken in the project, these historical episodes have been particularly studied as they not only highlight conflict between Greeks and Libyans but also between the Greeks themselves.
Results and conclusions
The integration of historical sources and the associated ancient historical research with archaeology was one of the project’s strengths from the beginning and this is also where its greatest scholarly value lies. For long a modern, combined analysis of both the historical sources and the archaeological material from Cyrenaica has been missing, and the purpose of the planned monograph is to fill this void. Such an approach proved particularly valuable in the analysis of the economic history of Cyrenaica which has led to important results. Where earlier historical studies focused completely on written sources, archaeological material has been integrated in the analysis, building on the previous research undertaken by the project leader on transport amphorae from Cyrenaica and maritime trade. Where earlier archaeological research primarily focused on the imported fine wares, the study of amphorae and other coarse wares have been added giving a more complete picture of Cyrenaican trade and economy.
Another result of the project is the stress on peaceful co-existence between the Greeks and the Libyans, despite the many conflicts. They largely depended on each other even though the sources like Herodotus tend to stress differences. A related result is the clarification of just how divided the Greeks instead were and how this often led to fighting and civil war. The heterogenous group of Greeks in Libya is characterized more by division than unity. The Libyans were clever to use the division and support one side or another in conflicts among the Greeks. Through a careful analysis the project has contributed to the nuancing of historiographical research and how we view the Greek interaction with indigenous peoples in colonial situations.
The project research has been presented in several seminars, lectures and at a conference with more lectures planned for this year. Writing up the above-mentioned chapter and the monograph now takes priority. Outreach has been undertaken in an article and more such articles are planned.