Decoding the Past: A query into enigmatic marking systems, their makers and significations
The aim is to assess how an exceptional, ample corpus of Roman marks and Non-Textual Marking Systems (NTMS) were used in the community, how and for what reasons. By describing and explaining their function, interconnectivity and co-existence, the goal is to understand their relation with the society, its administration, politics, beliefs and ideology. The results are expected to have an interdisciplinary impact.
The empirical data is based on hundreds of unpublished marks displayed on artefacts recorded in person at Gebel el-Silsila, Egypt, deriving from one homogeneous site, community and chronology. What systems were used, how, by whom and why? How do they relate with writing and iconography? The NTMS appear as communicating media, signifying concepts to be understood by all. Still today, we globally communicate with logos, signs and emoji, for which Decoding the Past will bridge with our Present.
The objectives are to 1) describe and classify the marks according with semiotics and structuralism; material culture will be studied for data on beliefs and ideology; 2) compare the systems for common patterns/meanings; 3) apply advanced digital technology for educational digital interaction, and reconstruct the context and historical role of the NTMS. Results will be presented at conferences, in journals, and a symposium is to be organised. As director of the site, and a notable body of pioneering results published, I consider myself accomplished to conduct this project.
Final report
Final report: Decoding the Past: A query into enigmatic marking systems, their makers and significations (P19-0860:1)
The primary objective for this project was to conduct a semiotic analysis of Roman Non-Textual Marking Systems, incorporating individual symbols and extensive codes documented by the Swedish archaeological Mission at Gebel el-Silsila (Egypt) since its inception in 2012. The hypothesis suggests that the marking systems at this site significantly diverges from older Egyptian and contemporary Greco-Roman systems found in similar contexts (industrial landscapes). Other sites present marks predominantly consisting of single signs or smaller series, traditionally interpreted as denoting ownership, content, or quantity. However, the current corpus suggests a considerably more intricate usage encompassing administrative, political, and socio-religious ideological functions.
To elucidate the project’s aims and decode the meanings of the marks, their mutual interactions and relevance to the contemporary society, the empirical data has been systematically analysed using semiotic and structuralist frameworks, incorporating agency-based considerations. Analyses of temporal and spatial distribution of marks indicate an extant relationship between specific motifs, irrespective of their material form. For instance, a Roman variant of the Egyptian ankh-sign appears in various forms: as portable sandstone-carved amulets, smaller semi-precious stone amulets, seals, ostraca, and engraved stone tablets placed under doorsteps for protection. The symbols, irrespective of materiality and placement, seemingly correspond to a desire for continued life or gratitude for survival in the perilous quarry environment.
The spatial placement of larger objects (stone tablets) in concealed parts of structures, alongside the portability of smaller objects, suggests a form of superstition and personal communication between the producer and the supernatural. This is similarly relevant for quarry marks placed on cliff faces 20-40 meters above the ground. Conversely, fully visible marks in tombs and other structures appear to function as identity marks, though a multi-functional symbolism cannot be excluded, as exemplified by ankh-signs carved into stables for working animals, likely serving a protective purpose.
Incised motifs, such as footprints or game boards may convey multifunctional meanings. Of the 106 rock art sites documented so far, 41 feature nearly 700 soles produced in a variety of styles, shapes, details, and techniques. Spatial analyses reveals that these motifs are often found in frequently visited landscapes where paths intersect, in border areas, and at strategic locations such as surveillance points. Generally, the study identifies three main categories of meaning for this symbol: 1) personal commemoration; 2) landscape appropriation; and 3) theophany, serving as symbolic formulae. The research also suggests that soles were used as grave markers, contributing a novel perspective to the ongoing debate.
Game boards appear in similar contexts, both carved into bedrock and as portable objects, and can be interpreted as practical items for entertainment, and as possessing a symbolic connection to the Afterlife and burial practices. The site is preserved with one of the highest numbers of ancient game boards, ranging from Prehistoric Men to Ottoman Sega. Intriguingly, the site offers evidence of the dotted version of Senet games (previously believed to be a purely Cypriot version influenced by the Egyptians), as well as Mehen boards. Several subsites have presented game pieces and other marked items related to the game boards. As visible markers in the landscape, these examples encompass various potentials for action and can stimulate engagement from observers.
Like many other projects initiated during the pandemic, this study was affected by restrictions, particularly physical documentation in Egypt and conference participation. Despite these challenges, the project’s aims, research questions, theoretical frameworks, and methodologies have largely adhered to the original plan, albeit with some alterations as the work progressed. The primary focus has been on examining individual marks and material groups to uncover potential connections and contextual components. The contemporary cognitive response has evolved, given that the communication chain did not always include an intended (living) respondent. Consequently, the project’s socio-political focus has shifted towards a more cultural and religious emphasis, with ontological and narrative connections.
Implementation overview
The project has proceeded largely according to plan. Fieldwork has been integrated with research efforts, resulting in the systematic cataloguing of materials. Approximately 300 artefacts and around 1000 symbolic graffiti have been catalogued, and a comprehensive database has been established. This database includes information on inventory numbers, find locations, materials, dimensions, relative dating, photographs, and facsimiles. Preliminary findings have been presented at several online seminars and conferences, two of which will culminate in anthology publications later this year. Unfortunately, a serious illness in the family during the project’s final phase has caused some delays in the publication schedule. Nevertheless, the study has facilitated the writing of two monographic publications instead of one.
Key results
A significant insight gained during the project is the necessity for an advanced theoretical framework. Initially, the marks were analysed through micro-scale semiotic deconstruction to determine style, techniques, and motifs, resulting in stylistic taxonomies. Subsequently, these motifs were categorised into larger thematic groups, such as animals, architecture, anthropomorphic figures, flora, and geometric patterns. However, I have since replaced the overarching semiotics by the more specific social- and landscape semiotics. These frameworks incorporate middle- and macro-scale analyses, examining how the marks diachronically interacted with their immediate contexts and the broader natural and constructed landscapes, alongside their social dimensions. This theoretical approach has enabled the tracking of stylistic and spatial patterns, as well as the frequency of events, leading to a deeper understanding of the markings’ roles in a continuous chain of communication between creator, context, and viewer.
A tangible outcome of the project is the systematic analysis of unique and previously unpublished empirical material. The complete database is being prepared for open-access publication. This study has facilitated a deeper comprehension of the meanings and functions of various marks and systems, identifying the systems and codes utilised, and the forms and media in which they appeared.
Another significant result is the confirmation of similarities between the current material and previously studied quarry marks. The current corpus bridges Egyptian symbolic language and later Roman apotropaic gems. Traditionally, magical amulets with so-called karakteres are considered a later Roman invention. However, this study provides a logical explanation in which the Greco-Roman culture assimilates and further develops traditional Egyptian practices. This development is also corroborated by the increased number of marks and artefacts, which, while limited in Pharaonic times, expanded spatially and in the diversity of depicted motifs during the Greco-Roman period.
New research questions
Several new research questions have emerged, primarily focusing on the significance of studying “the ordinary person”. In Egyptology, insights into self-perception are typically derived from analysing reliefs, sculptures, and literature. However, these media predominantly represent the urban elite and overlook the broader societal and rural diversity, thereby yielding limited results. Gebel el-Silsila, as an industrial landscape populated by working individuals in a challenging environment, provides a unique perspective. As the site has never been excavated before, it offers immense potential and valuable information. The project’s theoretical approach, combined with its results, has inspired the development of an exciting new research project (VR) where the quarry art at the site is now being analysed to reconstruct the socio-cultural biographies of ordinary people.
Dissemination
Given the project’s extensive chronological and empirical scope, various aspects have been presented on different occasions. These include three international conferences: International Congress of Egyptologists (XIII) in Leiden (2023), International Symposium on Animals in Ancient Egypt in Naples (2022), and Making and Experiencing Graffiti in Ancient and Late Antique Egypt and Sudan online conference hosted by NINO/Leiden University (2021). Additionally, I have been invited to speak at numerous societies, including the Carlisle and District Egyptology Society (2023), Southampton Ancient Egypt Society (2023, 2021), Dansk Ægyptologisk Selskab (2023), Rainham and Medway and Swale Egyptology Society (2023), Society for the Study of Ancient Egypt (2022), Halmstad Lecture Society (2021), EFIS (2021), Manchester Ancient Egypt Society (2021), and Wirral Ancient Egypt Society (2021). Furthermore, I conducted a six-week lecture series for the Kemet Club.
The research material has also been incorporated into the following Masters courses at Lund University:
Two themes (The Graffiti Dialogue and Signs and Symbols) in ARKN11: Archaeological Theory and Material.
One theme (Non-official Text Communication) in ARKN21: Text and Materiality.
Recurring content in the Archaeology and Ancient History: Field Archaeology in Theory and Practice Module 2: Processing and Analysing, 7.5 credits.
A website for the project’s database is currently being finalised and is expected to be published before the end of the year.
The primary objective for this project was to conduct a semiotic analysis of Roman Non-Textual Marking Systems, incorporating individual symbols and extensive codes documented by the Swedish archaeological Mission at Gebel el-Silsila (Egypt) since its inception in 2012. The hypothesis suggests that the marking systems at this site significantly diverges from older Egyptian and contemporary Greco-Roman systems found in similar contexts (industrial landscapes). Other sites present marks predominantly consisting of single signs or smaller series, traditionally interpreted as denoting ownership, content, or quantity. However, the current corpus suggests a considerably more intricate usage encompassing administrative, political, and socio-religious ideological functions.
To elucidate the project’s aims and decode the meanings of the marks, their mutual interactions and relevance to the contemporary society, the empirical data has been systematically analysed using semiotic and structuralist frameworks, incorporating agency-based considerations. Analyses of temporal and spatial distribution of marks indicate an extant relationship between specific motifs, irrespective of their material form. For instance, a Roman variant of the Egyptian ankh-sign appears in various forms: as portable sandstone-carved amulets, smaller semi-precious stone amulets, seals, ostraca, and engraved stone tablets placed under doorsteps for protection. The symbols, irrespective of materiality and placement, seemingly correspond to a desire for continued life or gratitude for survival in the perilous quarry environment.
The spatial placement of larger objects (stone tablets) in concealed parts of structures, alongside the portability of smaller objects, suggests a form of superstition and personal communication between the producer and the supernatural. This is similarly relevant for quarry marks placed on cliff faces 20-40 meters above the ground. Conversely, fully visible marks in tombs and other structures appear to function as identity marks, though a multi-functional symbolism cannot be excluded, as exemplified by ankh-signs carved into stables for working animals, likely serving a protective purpose.
Incised motifs, such as footprints or game boards may convey multifunctional meanings. Of the 106 rock art sites documented so far, 41 feature nearly 700 soles produced in a variety of styles, shapes, details, and techniques. Spatial analyses reveals that these motifs are often found in frequently visited landscapes where paths intersect, in border areas, and at strategic locations such as surveillance points. Generally, the study identifies three main categories of meaning for this symbol: 1) personal commemoration; 2) landscape appropriation; and 3) theophany, serving as symbolic formulae. The research also suggests that soles were used as grave markers, contributing a novel perspective to the ongoing debate.
Game boards appear in similar contexts, both carved into bedrock and as portable objects, and can be interpreted as practical items for entertainment, and as possessing a symbolic connection to the Afterlife and burial practices. The site is preserved with one of the highest numbers of ancient game boards, ranging from Prehistoric Men to Ottoman Sega. Intriguingly, the site offers evidence of the dotted version of Senet games (previously believed to be a purely Cypriot version influenced by the Egyptians), as well as Mehen boards. Several subsites have presented game pieces and other marked items related to the game boards. As visible markers in the landscape, these examples encompass various potentials for action and can stimulate engagement from observers.
Like many other projects initiated during the pandemic, this study was affected by restrictions, particularly physical documentation in Egypt and conference participation. Despite these challenges, the project’s aims, research questions, theoretical frameworks, and methodologies have largely adhered to the original plan, albeit with some alterations as the work progressed. The primary focus has been on examining individual marks and material groups to uncover potential connections and contextual components. The contemporary cognitive response has evolved, given that the communication chain did not always include an intended (living) respondent. Consequently, the project’s socio-political focus has shifted towards a more cultural and religious emphasis, with ontological and narrative connections.
Implementation overview
The project has proceeded largely according to plan. Fieldwork has been integrated with research efforts, resulting in the systematic cataloguing of materials. Approximately 300 artefacts and around 1000 symbolic graffiti have been catalogued, and a comprehensive database has been established. This database includes information on inventory numbers, find locations, materials, dimensions, relative dating, photographs, and facsimiles. Preliminary findings have been presented at several online seminars and conferences, two of which will culminate in anthology publications later this year. Unfortunately, a serious illness in the family during the project’s final phase has caused some delays in the publication schedule. Nevertheless, the study has facilitated the writing of two monographic publications instead of one.
Key results
A significant insight gained during the project is the necessity for an advanced theoretical framework. Initially, the marks were analysed through micro-scale semiotic deconstruction to determine style, techniques, and motifs, resulting in stylistic taxonomies. Subsequently, these motifs were categorised into larger thematic groups, such as animals, architecture, anthropomorphic figures, flora, and geometric patterns. However, I have since replaced the overarching semiotics by the more specific social- and landscape semiotics. These frameworks incorporate middle- and macro-scale analyses, examining how the marks diachronically interacted with their immediate contexts and the broader natural and constructed landscapes, alongside their social dimensions. This theoretical approach has enabled the tracking of stylistic and spatial patterns, as well as the frequency of events, leading to a deeper understanding of the markings’ roles in a continuous chain of communication between creator, context, and viewer.
A tangible outcome of the project is the systematic analysis of unique and previously unpublished empirical material. The complete database is being prepared for open-access publication. This study has facilitated a deeper comprehension of the meanings and functions of various marks and systems, identifying the systems and codes utilised, and the forms and media in which they appeared.
Another significant result is the confirmation of similarities between the current material and previously studied quarry marks. The current corpus bridges Egyptian symbolic language and later Roman apotropaic gems. Traditionally, magical amulets with so-called karakteres are considered a later Roman invention. However, this study provides a logical explanation in which the Greco-Roman culture assimilates and further develops traditional Egyptian practices. This development is also corroborated by the increased number of marks and artefacts, which, while limited in Pharaonic times, expanded spatially and in the diversity of depicted motifs during the Greco-Roman period.
New research questions
Several new research questions have emerged, primarily focusing on the significance of studying “the ordinary person”. In Egyptology, insights into self-perception are typically derived from analysing reliefs, sculptures, and literature. However, these media predominantly represent the urban elite and overlook the broader societal and rural diversity, thereby yielding limited results. Gebel el-Silsila, as an industrial landscape populated by working individuals in a challenging environment, provides a unique perspective. As the site has never been excavated before, it offers immense potential and valuable information. The project’s theoretical approach, combined with its results, has inspired the development of an exciting new research project (VR) where the quarry art at the site is now being analysed to reconstruct the socio-cultural biographies of ordinary people.
Dissemination
Given the project’s extensive chronological and empirical scope, various aspects have been presented on different occasions. These include three international conferences: International Congress of Egyptologists (XIII) in Leiden (2023), International Symposium on Animals in Ancient Egypt in Naples (2022), and Making and Experiencing Graffiti in Ancient and Late Antique Egypt and Sudan online conference hosted by NINO/Leiden University (2021). Additionally, I have been invited to speak at numerous societies, including the Carlisle and District Egyptology Society (2023), Southampton Ancient Egypt Society (2023, 2021), Dansk Ægyptologisk Selskab (2023), Rainham and Medway and Swale Egyptology Society (2023), Society for the Study of Ancient Egypt (2022), Halmstad Lecture Society (2021), EFIS (2021), Manchester Ancient Egypt Society (2021), and Wirral Ancient Egypt Society (2021). Furthermore, I conducted a six-week lecture series for the Kemet Club.
The research material has also been incorporated into the following Masters courses at Lund University:
Two themes (The Graffiti Dialogue and Signs and Symbols) in ARKN11: Archaeological Theory and Material.
One theme (Non-official Text Communication) in ARKN21: Text and Materiality.
Recurring content in the Archaeology and Ancient History: Field Archaeology in Theory and Practice Module 2: Processing and Analysing, 7.5 credits.
A website for the project’s database is currently being finalised and is expected to be published before the end of the year.