Governing educational expectations: Swedish standards-based education since 1919, a history that matters
The aim of this project is to study the history of objectives in educational governance in Sweden. We see the use of objectives as a central part of the development of public education in the early 20th century, as well as in today’s marketized school system. Standards are, we argue, at the centre of what education has become, and in the struggle over what education should be.
Research on standards-based education, in which objectives play a key role, has primarily focused on the development since the 1980s, linking it to the introduction of new forms of management in the public sector, primarily new public management. However, recent research shows that standards-based education goes back to late 19th century. In line with Pierson (2004), we argue that the institutional history matters, and that there is a need to review the current uses of objectives in the light of the longer history studied in this project.
Research on the Swedish case can help us better understand the historically strong position of objectives in educational governance globally and the interplay between education and other policy arenas. Thanks to Sweden’s parliamentary committee tradition, and its archives, there exist unique material in tracing this history back in time.
Theoretically, the project draw on the neo-institutional perspective and historical institutionalism. We have preliminary discerned four different periods in the history of objectives that we will focus, from 1919 until today.
Final report
Purpose and development of the project
The purpose of the project " Governing educational expectations: Swedish
standards-based education since 1919, a history that matters" has been to provide new perspectives on the role of educational objectives in school governance. The project focused on three periods—1900–1962, 1962–1990, and 1990–2020—and two aspects of objectives-oriented governance: the role of objectives in educational policy documents and teachers' perceptions of objectives and their role in teaching. Theoretically, the project was based on historical institutionalism. Three key questions guided the research:
-What role have objectives played in educational policy?
-How have teachers viewed educational objectives and their role in their work?
-What institutions related to educational objectives can be identified?
These questions correspond to the project's original research questions. Some adjustments were made during the project. For example, the timeframe was extended. Initially, we assumed that educational objectives were introduced in school policy documents in 1919, but our findings revealed that this occurred as early as the turn of the 20th century. Additionally, a couple of studies not originally planned were conducted: a systematic review of research on objectives-oriented governance in Swedish schools, a comparative study of governance models in the Nordic countries from 1980–2020, and a study of how the government has used different forms of performance measurements to govern schools despite local administration. Furthermore, the study design for addressing the key questions was adjusted. The study design ultimately consisted of separate analyses of questions 1 and 2, followed by a comparative analysis based on the theoretical concepts of the study to address question 3.
The project's three main results, along with reflections on its conclusions:
1. Our study shows that the history of objectives-oriented governance dates back to at least the turn of the 20th century.
The results of our empirical studies challenge the common notion in research that objectives-oriented governance in schools emerged in the late 1980s and early 1990s. We identified three distinct periods in the history of objectives-oriented governance:
1900–1962: Outcome-Oriented Governance by Objectives
Since the early 1900s, the state has used objectives in educational policy documents. As early as the early 20th century, there are examples of teachers developing practices for using educational objectives in teaching. Around 1900, objectives became a significant governance tool for the state with the introduction of subject objectives for secondary school courses in the secondary school statutes. These subject objectives were also tied to student exams. We characterize the objectives-oriented governance of the period 1900–1962 as outcome-oriented because objectives in both policy documents and teacher writings were formulated and discussed in relation to the results of education or teaching.
1962–1990: Teaching-Oriented Governance by Objectives
With the introduction of the comprehensive school in the 1960s, objectives became an even more integral part of school governance. From the 1960s onwards, the state expanded its use of objectives in policy documents by including general objectives in the opening chapters of curricula, further developing subject-specific objectives, and incorporating numerous non-binding guidelines on how teachers should use objectives in teaching. During this period, teachers, along with authorities, researchers, and school developers, increasingly developed new approaches to understanding and using objectives in relation to teaching. We refer to the objectives-oriented governance of the period 1962–1990 as teaching-oriented, which emphasizes discussing and developing the implications of educational objectives for teachers' planning, implementation, and evaluation of teaching, while downplaying the focus on student performance and outcomes.
1990–2020: Outcome- and Teaching-Oriented Governance by Objectives
The state's use of objectives in school governance intensified further between 1990 and 2020. A key regulatory change during this period was the introduction of criterion-referenced grading. Criterion-referenced grading provided a basis for linking both existing and new regulations to grades and associated objectives. At the same time, teachers developed new norms and practices related to objectives, including discussions about the wording of objectives in policy documents and the emergence of new practices, such as efforts to help students achieve the objectives. Towards the end of this period, a highly instrumental use of objectives became evident in teachers' descriptions of teaching. We describe the objectives-oriented governance of the period 1990–2020 as outcome- and teaching-oriented because it combines the outcome focus of the first period with the teaching focus of the middle period and advances both in terms of regulation and in the norms and practices developed by teachers.
2. Our study demonstrates both gradual institutional change and formative moments in the development of objectives-oriented governance in schools from 1900 to 2020.
Our analysis of the state's use of objectives in school policy documents and related areas of regulation reveals a continuous expansion of regulation from around 1900 to today. This reflects what institutional theory describes as gradual institutional change through layering, where new elements are added to develop, change, and complement existing institutions. From this perspective, the decentralization reforms of the 1990s are part of a broader movement that has been ongoing since the turn of the 20th century. The increased regulation via objectives indicates a growing ambition on the part of the state to ensure that school activities and teaching actually achieve the established objectives. In this regard, there is a high degree of continuity in institutional development over time, known as path dependency.
However, the picture becomes more complex when we include teachers' practices and norms related to objectives in teaching. In the early 20th century, teachers developed practices and norms related to objectives in ways that, while not contradicting state regulation, established objectives-oriented practices with weak links to policy documents. During the middle period, tensions increased between different approaches to educational objectives, particularly in relation to the more developed ideas about objectives-oriented teaching formulated by authorities during the 1960s and 1970s and teachers' freer attitudes toward objectives in teaching. The reforms of the 1990s marked a shift, transforming objectives from a primarily pedagogical, non-binding tool to a more legally binding one. While our findings reveal a long history of objectives-oriented governance, they also reinforce the view of the 1990s reforms as transformative for teachers' norms and practices related to objectives. After the millennium, more nuanced methodological considerations regarding objectives disappeared from teacher publications, replaced by an increasingly instrumental approach.
3. Historical institutionalism enables the study of the relationship between governance and practice.
Research on the institutional development of schools has primarily focused on the formal side through analyses of policy documents, textbooks, and similar materials. Teachers' practices have been less visible in research due to a lack of systematic documentation. Educational history studies that include analyses of and interaction between the formal state governance arena and the informal realization arena—school practices—are thus rare. Educational research, therefore, needs theoretical tools that can address both aspects and their interplay. Our project demonstrates that historical institutionalism offers such tools, especially through the analytical distinction between formal and informal institutions and theoretical concepts related to their interaction.
New research questions
The project has generated a wealth of empirical material that can serve as a foundation for further studies. One avenue to explore is how teachers in different eras have managed nuances of objectives. Another is how teachers' work has evolved since the early 1900s. Our material indicates shifts over time, but deeper analyses are needed to reveal what these shifts have meant for teachers' work.
Dissemination of results and collaboration
The project group has participated in Swedish and international conferences, seminars, and workshops and held two meetings with reference groups to deepen discussions around the project's research questions. Results from the project will be presented at at least three additional international conferences in 2025. All publications from the project are freely available online via open access.
The purpose of the project " Governing educational expectations: Swedish
standards-based education since 1919, a history that matters" has been to provide new perspectives on the role of educational objectives in school governance. The project focused on three periods—1900–1962, 1962–1990, and 1990–2020—and two aspects of objectives-oriented governance: the role of objectives in educational policy documents and teachers' perceptions of objectives and their role in teaching. Theoretically, the project was based on historical institutionalism. Three key questions guided the research:
-What role have objectives played in educational policy?
-How have teachers viewed educational objectives and their role in their work?
-What institutions related to educational objectives can be identified?
These questions correspond to the project's original research questions. Some adjustments were made during the project. For example, the timeframe was extended. Initially, we assumed that educational objectives were introduced in school policy documents in 1919, but our findings revealed that this occurred as early as the turn of the 20th century. Additionally, a couple of studies not originally planned were conducted: a systematic review of research on objectives-oriented governance in Swedish schools, a comparative study of governance models in the Nordic countries from 1980–2020, and a study of how the government has used different forms of performance measurements to govern schools despite local administration. Furthermore, the study design for addressing the key questions was adjusted. The study design ultimately consisted of separate analyses of questions 1 and 2, followed by a comparative analysis based on the theoretical concepts of the study to address question 3.
The project's three main results, along with reflections on its conclusions:
1. Our study shows that the history of objectives-oriented governance dates back to at least the turn of the 20th century.
The results of our empirical studies challenge the common notion in research that objectives-oriented governance in schools emerged in the late 1980s and early 1990s. We identified three distinct periods in the history of objectives-oriented governance:
1900–1962: Outcome-Oriented Governance by Objectives
Since the early 1900s, the state has used objectives in educational policy documents. As early as the early 20th century, there are examples of teachers developing practices for using educational objectives in teaching. Around 1900, objectives became a significant governance tool for the state with the introduction of subject objectives for secondary school courses in the secondary school statutes. These subject objectives were also tied to student exams. We characterize the objectives-oriented governance of the period 1900–1962 as outcome-oriented because objectives in both policy documents and teacher writings were formulated and discussed in relation to the results of education or teaching.
1962–1990: Teaching-Oriented Governance by Objectives
With the introduction of the comprehensive school in the 1960s, objectives became an even more integral part of school governance. From the 1960s onwards, the state expanded its use of objectives in policy documents by including general objectives in the opening chapters of curricula, further developing subject-specific objectives, and incorporating numerous non-binding guidelines on how teachers should use objectives in teaching. During this period, teachers, along with authorities, researchers, and school developers, increasingly developed new approaches to understanding and using objectives in relation to teaching. We refer to the objectives-oriented governance of the period 1962–1990 as teaching-oriented, which emphasizes discussing and developing the implications of educational objectives for teachers' planning, implementation, and evaluation of teaching, while downplaying the focus on student performance and outcomes.
1990–2020: Outcome- and Teaching-Oriented Governance by Objectives
The state's use of objectives in school governance intensified further between 1990 and 2020. A key regulatory change during this period was the introduction of criterion-referenced grading. Criterion-referenced grading provided a basis for linking both existing and new regulations to grades and associated objectives. At the same time, teachers developed new norms and practices related to objectives, including discussions about the wording of objectives in policy documents and the emergence of new practices, such as efforts to help students achieve the objectives. Towards the end of this period, a highly instrumental use of objectives became evident in teachers' descriptions of teaching. We describe the objectives-oriented governance of the period 1990–2020 as outcome- and teaching-oriented because it combines the outcome focus of the first period with the teaching focus of the middle period and advances both in terms of regulation and in the norms and practices developed by teachers.
2. Our study demonstrates both gradual institutional change and formative moments in the development of objectives-oriented governance in schools from 1900 to 2020.
Our analysis of the state's use of objectives in school policy documents and related areas of regulation reveals a continuous expansion of regulation from around 1900 to today. This reflects what institutional theory describes as gradual institutional change through layering, where new elements are added to develop, change, and complement existing institutions. From this perspective, the decentralization reforms of the 1990s are part of a broader movement that has been ongoing since the turn of the 20th century. The increased regulation via objectives indicates a growing ambition on the part of the state to ensure that school activities and teaching actually achieve the established objectives. In this regard, there is a high degree of continuity in institutional development over time, known as path dependency.
However, the picture becomes more complex when we include teachers' practices and norms related to objectives in teaching. In the early 20th century, teachers developed practices and norms related to objectives in ways that, while not contradicting state regulation, established objectives-oriented practices with weak links to policy documents. During the middle period, tensions increased between different approaches to educational objectives, particularly in relation to the more developed ideas about objectives-oriented teaching formulated by authorities during the 1960s and 1970s and teachers' freer attitudes toward objectives in teaching. The reforms of the 1990s marked a shift, transforming objectives from a primarily pedagogical, non-binding tool to a more legally binding one. While our findings reveal a long history of objectives-oriented governance, they also reinforce the view of the 1990s reforms as transformative for teachers' norms and practices related to objectives. After the millennium, more nuanced methodological considerations regarding objectives disappeared from teacher publications, replaced by an increasingly instrumental approach.
3. Historical institutionalism enables the study of the relationship between governance and practice.
Research on the institutional development of schools has primarily focused on the formal side through analyses of policy documents, textbooks, and similar materials. Teachers' practices have been less visible in research due to a lack of systematic documentation. Educational history studies that include analyses of and interaction between the formal state governance arena and the informal realization arena—school practices—are thus rare. Educational research, therefore, needs theoretical tools that can address both aspects and their interplay. Our project demonstrates that historical institutionalism offers such tools, especially through the analytical distinction between formal and informal institutions and theoretical concepts related to their interaction.
New research questions
The project has generated a wealth of empirical material that can serve as a foundation for further studies. One avenue to explore is how teachers in different eras have managed nuances of objectives. Another is how teachers' work has evolved since the early 1900s. Our material indicates shifts over time, but deeper analyses are needed to reveal what these shifts have meant for teachers' work.
Dissemination of results and collaboration
The project group has participated in Swedish and international conferences, seminars, and workshops and held two meetings with reference groups to deepen discussions around the project's research questions. Results from the project will be presented at at least three additional international conferences in 2025. All publications from the project are freely available online via open access.