Notetaking and active listening in a second language: Exploring student habits and performance
Taking notes is an essential practice for university students who often rely on notetaking to aid concentration while listening and to create records of lecture content to be reviewed later. This one-year sabbatical will allow for comprehensive exploration and analysis of a variety of existing data collected from students taking English medium instruction (EMI) courses at Swedish universities and those on academic tracks in upper secondary schools who are preparing to do so. Data include surveys, samples of student notes, listening test scores, and recordings of student-student discussions. All notetaking data was collected between 2017-20 and has generated academic publications and contributions related to a variety of topics: pedagogic approaches, affects on test performance in a quasi-experimental design, and an examination of how “good” notes are defined. However, several valuable avenues of exploration remain untapped: patterns and descriptions of translanguaging (i.e., the use of more than one language) in notes and the resulting affects on learning; the longer term effects of notetaking instruction; and the potential for student-student discussions based on notes and the related developmental opportunities for content learning and notetaking strategy use. This project will allow for exploration into these topics and will generate a series of publications in high-level scholarly journals.
Final report
Purpose of project
This report covers activities from 1 August 2021 to 31 July 2022. The COVID-19 pandemic affected some plans outlined in the original proposal.
Taking notes is an essential practice for students who often rely on notetaking to aid concentration while listening and to create records of lecture content to be reviewed later. This one-year sabbatical allowed for extensive processing and reporting of data collected in relation to upper secondary school and university students' notetaking habits, preferences, and performance. These data included surveys, samples of student notes, writing tasks, and listening test scores. Effects of speaker output on listening comprehension and key word identification were also analyzed. Several research avenues were explored, including translanguaging patterns (e.g., the mixing of two or more languages) in notes, different measurements of note content, notetaking habits in relation to while- and post-notetaking phases, factors that affect notetaking performance, key word identification while listening, and multiple case studies of individual notetakers at different levels of ability.
Project Implementation
Data analyzed in the project had been previously collected and no new data was collected during the sabbatical period. Data included student notes, surveys, samples student writing, and listening comprehension test scores. To implement the various analytical procedures, specific tools were used with different types of data. Qualitative methods were used to investigate translanguaging practices in student notes, to analyze quality of writing samples, and to detail contents of open survey questions. Quantitative analysis consisted of various statistical tests, depending on the purpose of the analysis and the data available. These included t-tests, chi-squared, Cramer’s V, correlational calculations, binomial proportions test, total cases, and percent of cases.
The first goal was to determine the relationship between lecturers’ intended main ideas and those main ideas recognized by students. This analysis included coding for key words in both lecturer output and student summaries of main ideas after lectures. The second goal involved examining student notes and survey responses in relation to translanguaging patterns. Close analysis of note samples revealed instances of translanguaging (e.g., blending Swedish and English in notes while listening to English), while survey analysis demonstrated student views on the usefulness of translanguaging. Third, survey data were separated into while- and post-notetaking habits. Chi square calculations were used to determine any statistically significant differences between students reported notetaking habits in Sweden and a comparison group in Japan. These two countries were specifically chosen because Swedish students, in general, have higher English proficiency than Japanese students; meanwhile, English is used both as a school subject and as a means of delivering information in both contexts.
To better understand student views on personal, speaker, and contextual factors that facilitate or hinder notetaking ability, survey data from five countries (N = 711) were compared. The relation between notes and written tasks related to those notes was also explored by comparing information in notes with written expressions. Student preferences for digital tools for notetaking compared to traditional notes by hand were also compared to explore any differences in reported views and habits based on this preference. In contrast to the group-oriented angles mentioned above, the project employed multiple case studies involving a combination of note samples, survey data, writing samples, and test scores to create profiles of notetakers at different levels of ability.
One specific sub-set of note samples was further analyzed in the following ways: total notations, total content words, total information units (IUs) (i.e., complete idea units), and efficiency ratio (a ratio of total information units to total words in a set of notes). Correlation calculations of these four factors in comparison to test results showed the strongest positive correlations between information units and test scores. Statistically significant negative correlations were found between total notations, total words and efficiency rate.
Three most important results
The project’s three most important results are as follows:
1. Providing a better and more nuanced understanding of notetaking from the student’s perspective, along with correlations of different measurements of note quality;
2. Establishing and applying a framework for understanding individual notetaker profiles at different levels of performance;
3. Identifying patterns of translanguaging in notes and revealing student views on their use of multilinguistic resources for taking notes.
Notetaking is a skill that is typically taken for granted in education, with teachers expecting students to take notes, and students, in turn, expecting to do so. However, a range of factors can impact the extent to which a) students take quality notes in effective and efficient manners and b) teachers deliver information in ways that are conducive to student notetaking. By examining student notetaking in both objective, result-driven (e.g., note samples, student writing samples, test scores) and explanatory perspectives (e.g., open and closed survey items), the project has provided a multifaceted way of accessing and comparing student views, habits and notetaking performance. It has built on emerging concepts in applied linguistics, such as translanguaging and use of digital technology, as well as on more established frameworks relating to cross-cultural educational comparisons and listening comprehension, to explore this notetaking data set in a variety of ways. Hopefully, the papers generated through this analysis will stimulate further appreciation for the complexity of notetaking and additional work in the area.
New research avenues
During the project, which only included handwritten notes, new research questions relating to digital notetaking habits and preferences were raised, including whether traditional pen and paper notetaking or digital notetaking with laptops or table computers is more beneficial. Other questions related to organizational structuring of notes, and specifically the influence of PowerPoint slide handouts, were also recognized and should be explored in the future.
International dimensions and dissemination
The international dimension of the project is evident in the sharing of results and generation of dialogue on four continents; namely, Africa, Asia, Europe, and North America. In addition to a research visit to the Linguistics Department at University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, results from the project were shared at the following conference presentations and workshops:
“Notetaking performance: Accounting for influential factors". Africa English Language Teachers’ Association Conference. 12 August 2022.
"Listening comprehension in EMI lectures". Nätverk och Utveckling Conference on Higher Education. Stockholm, Sweden. 16 June 2022.
May-June 2022: Teacher trainer in a CIVIS project within Europe titled “Developing a Pedagogic Toolbox for CLIL/EMI” (https://civis.eu/en/workshops-on-innovative-pedagogies/developing-a-pedagogic-toolbox-for-clil-emi-teaching-and-learning-in-an-additional-language)
"Notetaking instruction for intermediate and advanced learners". The Swedish Society for the Study of English. Södertorn University, Sweden. 20 April 2022.
"Notetaking and action research: Simultaneous cycles". AILA World Congress. 15 August 2021.
Project results have also been summarized for non-academics in the following online article:
Tipsen som får elever att anteckna på rätt sätt | Grundskolläraren (lararen.se).
A second online article related to digitalization in schools, partially relying on the findings generated by this project, is currently in progress by the same author.
Published articles:
The following papers were published Open Access with support from SAB20-0054 and agreements between the publishers and Stockholm University:
Siegel, J. (2022). Translanguaging options for notetaking in EAP and EMI. ELT Journal. DOI: 10.1093/elt/ccac027
Summary of main findings: Analysis of survey data from three countries showed that a majority of students prefer to use English to take notes when listening to English. Among the reasons students gave, avoiding translation and for speed and convenience, were expressed.
Siegel, J. (2022). Factors affecting notetaking performance. International Journal of Listening. DOI: 10.1080/10904018.2022.2059484
Summary of main findings: From a list of eight possible factors, rate of speech, personal interest in the topic, and one’s own notetaking ability were found to be the most common factors reported by the 711 students from five countries.
Siegel, J. & Kusumoto, Y. (2022). A cross-cultural investigation of L2 notetaking: Student habits and perspectives. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development. DOI: 10.1080/01434632.2022.2036168
Summary of main findings: The paper compared notetaking perspectives and habits between students in Japan and Sweden. The Swedish students generally had more positive and productive views of notetaking than the Japanese group. Few students in either group reported actively using notes after taking them. In terms of technology and notetaking, Japanese students reported taking pictures of important information more often than the Swedish group, who, in turn, were more likely to type notes on a computer or tablet.
Siegel, J. (2022). Comparing teacher priorities and student uptake in EMI lectures: An exploratory study. Languages: Special issues on Language Practices in English Classrooms, 7(1). DOI: 10.3390/languages7010039
Summary of main findings: This study compared teachers’ intended teaching points with student reports after lectures. Analysis of key words in student reports showed a range of 16% - 53% of key word reporting, suggesting that many students may not be learning or noting what their teachers hope they will.
Siegel, J. (2022). Translanguaging in notes: A Swedish perspective. ASLA:s skriftserie/ASLA Studies in Applied Linguistics, 29, 99–118.
DOI: 10.15626/asla2022.29 Available at: http://asla.se/skrifter/arsbocker/
Summary of main findings: This study examined translanguaging strategies in student notes and students’ reasons for adopting such strategies. Results showed that around 6% of students used a mixture of English and Swedish in their notes when listening to academic English texts. Strategies ranged from a single word in Swedish to complete changes in the language of notetaking. In a survey question, a majority of students reported to prefer taking notes in the same language that they are listening to; namely, taking notes in English while listening to English. They report this strategy to be more convenient and less taxing than switching back and forth between languages.
The following papers are in varying states of review and publication process:
Siegel, J. (forthcoming). Technology and Notetaking in English Medium Instruction: A case for increased attention. The Language Teacher.
Siegel, J. (forthcoming). From notes to writing: Three students in focus. ELT Journal.
Siegel, J. (under second round of revisions). Pen and paper or computerized notetaking? Student views and habits. Computers and Education Open.
Siegel, J. (under second round of revisions). Profiles in notetaking: A multiple case study. International Journal of Listening.
Siegel, J. (under review). What to write when taking notes?: Correlations in L2 students’ notes. Journal of Academic Writing.
This report covers activities from 1 August 2021 to 31 July 2022. The COVID-19 pandemic affected some plans outlined in the original proposal.
Taking notes is an essential practice for students who often rely on notetaking to aid concentration while listening and to create records of lecture content to be reviewed later. This one-year sabbatical allowed for extensive processing and reporting of data collected in relation to upper secondary school and university students' notetaking habits, preferences, and performance. These data included surveys, samples of student notes, writing tasks, and listening test scores. Effects of speaker output on listening comprehension and key word identification were also analyzed. Several research avenues were explored, including translanguaging patterns (e.g., the mixing of two or more languages) in notes, different measurements of note content, notetaking habits in relation to while- and post-notetaking phases, factors that affect notetaking performance, key word identification while listening, and multiple case studies of individual notetakers at different levels of ability.
Project Implementation
Data analyzed in the project had been previously collected and no new data was collected during the sabbatical period. Data included student notes, surveys, samples student writing, and listening comprehension test scores. To implement the various analytical procedures, specific tools were used with different types of data. Qualitative methods were used to investigate translanguaging practices in student notes, to analyze quality of writing samples, and to detail contents of open survey questions. Quantitative analysis consisted of various statistical tests, depending on the purpose of the analysis and the data available. These included t-tests, chi-squared, Cramer’s V, correlational calculations, binomial proportions test, total cases, and percent of cases.
The first goal was to determine the relationship between lecturers’ intended main ideas and those main ideas recognized by students. This analysis included coding for key words in both lecturer output and student summaries of main ideas after lectures. The second goal involved examining student notes and survey responses in relation to translanguaging patterns. Close analysis of note samples revealed instances of translanguaging (e.g., blending Swedish and English in notes while listening to English), while survey analysis demonstrated student views on the usefulness of translanguaging. Third, survey data were separated into while- and post-notetaking habits. Chi square calculations were used to determine any statistically significant differences between students reported notetaking habits in Sweden and a comparison group in Japan. These two countries were specifically chosen because Swedish students, in general, have higher English proficiency than Japanese students; meanwhile, English is used both as a school subject and as a means of delivering information in both contexts.
To better understand student views on personal, speaker, and contextual factors that facilitate or hinder notetaking ability, survey data from five countries (N = 711) were compared. The relation between notes and written tasks related to those notes was also explored by comparing information in notes with written expressions. Student preferences for digital tools for notetaking compared to traditional notes by hand were also compared to explore any differences in reported views and habits based on this preference. In contrast to the group-oriented angles mentioned above, the project employed multiple case studies involving a combination of note samples, survey data, writing samples, and test scores to create profiles of notetakers at different levels of ability.
One specific sub-set of note samples was further analyzed in the following ways: total notations, total content words, total information units (IUs) (i.e., complete idea units), and efficiency ratio (a ratio of total information units to total words in a set of notes). Correlation calculations of these four factors in comparison to test results showed the strongest positive correlations between information units and test scores. Statistically significant negative correlations were found between total notations, total words and efficiency rate.
Three most important results
The project’s three most important results are as follows:
1. Providing a better and more nuanced understanding of notetaking from the student’s perspective, along with correlations of different measurements of note quality;
2. Establishing and applying a framework for understanding individual notetaker profiles at different levels of performance;
3. Identifying patterns of translanguaging in notes and revealing student views on their use of multilinguistic resources for taking notes.
Notetaking is a skill that is typically taken for granted in education, with teachers expecting students to take notes, and students, in turn, expecting to do so. However, a range of factors can impact the extent to which a) students take quality notes in effective and efficient manners and b) teachers deliver information in ways that are conducive to student notetaking. By examining student notetaking in both objective, result-driven (e.g., note samples, student writing samples, test scores) and explanatory perspectives (e.g., open and closed survey items), the project has provided a multifaceted way of accessing and comparing student views, habits and notetaking performance. It has built on emerging concepts in applied linguistics, such as translanguaging and use of digital technology, as well as on more established frameworks relating to cross-cultural educational comparisons and listening comprehension, to explore this notetaking data set in a variety of ways. Hopefully, the papers generated through this analysis will stimulate further appreciation for the complexity of notetaking and additional work in the area.
New research avenues
During the project, which only included handwritten notes, new research questions relating to digital notetaking habits and preferences were raised, including whether traditional pen and paper notetaking or digital notetaking with laptops or table computers is more beneficial. Other questions related to organizational structuring of notes, and specifically the influence of PowerPoint slide handouts, were also recognized and should be explored in the future.
International dimensions and dissemination
The international dimension of the project is evident in the sharing of results and generation of dialogue on four continents; namely, Africa, Asia, Europe, and North America. In addition to a research visit to the Linguistics Department at University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, results from the project were shared at the following conference presentations and workshops:
“Notetaking performance: Accounting for influential factors". Africa English Language Teachers’ Association Conference. 12 August 2022.
"Listening comprehension in EMI lectures". Nätverk och Utveckling Conference on Higher Education. Stockholm, Sweden. 16 June 2022.
May-June 2022: Teacher trainer in a CIVIS project within Europe titled “Developing a Pedagogic Toolbox for CLIL/EMI” (https://civis.eu/en/workshops-on-innovative-pedagogies/developing-a-pedagogic-toolbox-for-clil-emi-teaching-and-learning-in-an-additional-language)
"Notetaking instruction for intermediate and advanced learners". The Swedish Society for the Study of English. Södertorn University, Sweden. 20 April 2022.
"Notetaking and action research: Simultaneous cycles". AILA World Congress. 15 August 2021.
Project results have also been summarized for non-academics in the following online article:
Tipsen som får elever att anteckna på rätt sätt | Grundskolläraren (lararen.se).
A second online article related to digitalization in schools, partially relying on the findings generated by this project, is currently in progress by the same author.
Published articles:
The following papers were published Open Access with support from SAB20-0054 and agreements between the publishers and Stockholm University:
Siegel, J. (2022). Translanguaging options for notetaking in EAP and EMI. ELT Journal. DOI: 10.1093/elt/ccac027
Summary of main findings: Analysis of survey data from three countries showed that a majority of students prefer to use English to take notes when listening to English. Among the reasons students gave, avoiding translation and for speed and convenience, were expressed.
Siegel, J. (2022). Factors affecting notetaking performance. International Journal of Listening. DOI: 10.1080/10904018.2022.2059484
Summary of main findings: From a list of eight possible factors, rate of speech, personal interest in the topic, and one’s own notetaking ability were found to be the most common factors reported by the 711 students from five countries.
Siegel, J. & Kusumoto, Y. (2022). A cross-cultural investigation of L2 notetaking: Student habits and perspectives. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development. DOI: 10.1080/01434632.2022.2036168
Summary of main findings: The paper compared notetaking perspectives and habits between students in Japan and Sweden. The Swedish students generally had more positive and productive views of notetaking than the Japanese group. Few students in either group reported actively using notes after taking them. In terms of technology and notetaking, Japanese students reported taking pictures of important information more often than the Swedish group, who, in turn, were more likely to type notes on a computer or tablet.
Siegel, J. (2022). Comparing teacher priorities and student uptake in EMI lectures: An exploratory study. Languages: Special issues on Language Practices in English Classrooms, 7(1). DOI: 10.3390/languages7010039
Summary of main findings: This study compared teachers’ intended teaching points with student reports after lectures. Analysis of key words in student reports showed a range of 16% - 53% of key word reporting, suggesting that many students may not be learning or noting what their teachers hope they will.
Siegel, J. (2022). Translanguaging in notes: A Swedish perspective. ASLA:s skriftserie/ASLA Studies in Applied Linguistics, 29, 99–118.
DOI: 10.15626/asla2022.29 Available at: http://asla.se/skrifter/arsbocker/
Summary of main findings: This study examined translanguaging strategies in student notes and students’ reasons for adopting such strategies. Results showed that around 6% of students used a mixture of English and Swedish in their notes when listening to academic English texts. Strategies ranged from a single word in Swedish to complete changes in the language of notetaking. In a survey question, a majority of students reported to prefer taking notes in the same language that they are listening to; namely, taking notes in English while listening to English. They report this strategy to be more convenient and less taxing than switching back and forth between languages.
The following papers are in varying states of review and publication process:
Siegel, J. (forthcoming). Technology and Notetaking in English Medium Instruction: A case for increased attention. The Language Teacher.
Siegel, J. (forthcoming). From notes to writing: Three students in focus. ELT Journal.
Siegel, J. (under second round of revisions). Pen and paper or computerized notetaking? Student views and habits. Computers and Education Open.
Siegel, J. (under second round of revisions). Profiles in notetaking: A multiple case study. International Journal of Listening.
Siegel, J. (under review). What to write when taking notes?: Correlations in L2 students’ notes. Journal of Academic Writing.