Social foundations of prejudice. The role of parents, peers and intergroup contact in the development of prejudice in adolescence
This project examines the development of prejudice in adolescence, with a particular focus on parents, peers and intergroup contact as key socialization contexts. The topic is motivated by the need to understand how processes of social influence unfold during adolescence; a critical time for attitude formation. By making use of unique panel data, we aim to overcome two main shortcomings in previous research, namely the lack of longitudinal analyses and the lack of analyses that take more than one socializing context into consideration simultaneously. Drawing on central theories of social influences and attitude formation, we address two questions that previous scholarship has failed to answer: What is the relative influence of peers, parents, and intergroup contact on the development of prejudice during adolescence? How do parents, peers and intergroup contact interact to produce prejudice? Only by studying the influence of parents, peers and intergroup contact simultaneously and over time, can we sort out who matters to adolescents' attitudes, and under what conditions. Doing so will not only enhance our understanding of how prejudice develops during adolescence, but also advance research on attitudes in general, as well as improve knowledge of how prejudice can be reduced.
Final report
Aim and implementation
The aim of the project was to examine the development of prejudice in adolescence, with a particular focus on parents, peers and intergroup contact as key socialization contexts. The project build on previous studies identifying adolescence as a critical time for attitude formation, and parents, friends and intergroup contact as important socializing contexts in relation to prejudicial attitudes. Meanwhile, previous efforts to understand the role of these contexts suffered from two main shortcomings; the lack of a longitudinal perspective and the lack of analyses that take more than one socializing context into consideration simultaneously. At the time of the grant proposal, this meant limited knowledge about, among other things, the interplay between various socializing contexts (parents, friends, classmates, etc.) in producing prejudice, but also when during adolescence specific influences are important.
Against this backdrop, the project set out to examine the relationship between different socializing contexts and the development of prejudice in adolescence. As for the interplay between different social influences, two questions guided the analyses; 1. What is the relative influence of peers, parents, and intergroup contact on the development of prejudice during adolescence? 2. How do parents, peers and intergroup contact interact to produce prejudice?
The project was carried out as planned, and in line with the aim as stated in the original proposal. Using quantitative methods adapted for longitudinal data, we examined the social foundations of prejudice by making use of existing data on attitudes of adolescents, their friends and parents in Sweden, and in the latter part of the project also in other national contexts (Germany, Czech Republic ). Throughout the studies, prejudice was operationalized through negative attitudes towards immigrants. Besides the two main research questions, individual studies also addressed related topics, for example how social influences occur and the role of socializing contexts beyond parents and close friends. Still, the focus has consistently been social foundations of prejudice.
Three most important results and contributions
While friends generally become more important in adolescence, this does not necessarily occur at the expense of parents. Through simultaneous and longitudinal analyzes of the influence of parents and friends, we found that parents' attitudes remain important for the level and development of prejudice even in late adolescence, and that parents’ influence occurs independent of friends' attitudes. The influence is primarily gradual, as young people over time converge towards their parents’ prejudice. Concerning the relative importance of parents’ and peers’ prejudice, we found that their direct effects on adolescents’ attitudes are equally strong. Meanwhile, parental prejudice also predicts the choice of friends, which suggest an overall greater importance for parental bias. In this sense, the project contributes by showing that parents influence adolescents’ prejudice both through gradual long-term socialization, and through managing their children's social world. Taken together, this makes parents key actors in relation to prejudice development, even during a time when social relationships with peers are highly valued.
The project has also contributed to a greater understanding of the role of intergroup contact, and in particular of more long-term consequences of interethnic contact in school. The project demonstrates that classroom diversity in junior high school is important for the establishment of interethnic friendships, both in the short- and long-term. A more diverse classroom implies more heterogenous networks, a difference which persists two years after the adolescents in our study had left junior high school and entered new classrooms. The longitudinal approach implies an important contribution as it sheds light on the longevity of the relationships, a perspective largely missing in previous research. Contrary to theoretical expectations, classroom diversity had only a limited (temporary) direct effect on prejudicial attitudes. Instead, we found that classroom diversity primarily affects prejudice through how it interacts with other socializing factors, both through promoting interethnic friendships which in turn affects prejudice and through moderating the impact of parental prejudice.
The project also calls for a broadened understanding of friends’ role. While previous research has shown that friends are important both for the level and development in prejudice, the project contributes to the knowledge of how such influences occur, including about which peer relationships are important. For example, we found that political discussions with friends affect how prejudice develops in adolescence. In line with theories of deliberative democracy, discussions are important per se, but they also interact with friends’ attitudes in how they primarily transmit positive immigrant attitudes. As for the scope of peer influence, the project shows that adolescents not necessarily need to be close friends to influence each other’s prejudice. Classmates are also important, not only in terms of their prejudicial attitudes, but also in terms of the general classroom climate. Adolescents in classrooms with a more open and inclusive climate generally develop more positive attitudes towards immigrants, compared to adolescents in classrooms with a less open climate. Although a cooperative classroom climate theoretically can be expected to be most effective in diverse classrooms, as it promotes common identities and reduces tensions, the relationship was independent of ethnic heterogeneity. Taken together, our findings show that while close friends are paramount, we need to broaden the understanding of peer influence. This to include others who adolescents interact with on a regular basis, as well as how they interact with each other. As for the latter, our results point specifically to the importance of an open and cooperative climate that also stimulates discussions about societal and political issues.
New research questions
One question that has arisen related to the project concerns how young people’s prejudice is influenced by larger social contexts, for example local/national political, economic and demographic developments. Given how research in this area is still in its infancy, we lack knowledge about if, and if so how, such factors influence adolescents’ prejudice. While the project in itself implies limited opportunities to pursue such questions, we consider this an important area for future research. Another new research question concerns the link between attitudes and action, and specifically what explains youth radical political activism, something which will be studied in a future project. Further, the current project has also made clear the lack of a coherent theoretical framework addressing the interplay between different socializing contexts in relation to prejudice formation. Within the project, we have primarily identified the problem, in a book chapter that synthesizes the existing, although still limited, literature on how different social influences interact with regard to prejudice development in adolescence. In the chapter we emphasize the need of an integrative approach, in the form of theory development and studies that take such an interplay into account, and discuss how this would contribute to the knowledge of how prejudice is formed and can be reduced.
International dimension and dissemination of results
The results from the project have mainly been disseminated through publications in international scientific journals (see list below, all open access) and through participation in international conferences. For example, 19th European Conference on Developmental Psychology, 16th conference of the European Association for Research on Adolescence, International Metropolis 2017 conference, 25th Biennial Congress of the International Society for the Study of Behavioral Development, 6th conference European Network for Social and Emotional Competence. Research collaborations and exchanges have also taken place with researchers in and outside Sweden, mainly in the Netherlands, Germany and Poland. This includes a research stay for Marta Miklikowska at Utrecht University (2019-2020). To communicate our research outside the research community, we have given public lectures, lectured for teachers and written popular science texts (see listed below).
The aim of the project was to examine the development of prejudice in adolescence, with a particular focus on parents, peers and intergroup contact as key socialization contexts. The project build on previous studies identifying adolescence as a critical time for attitude formation, and parents, friends and intergroup contact as important socializing contexts in relation to prejudicial attitudes. Meanwhile, previous efforts to understand the role of these contexts suffered from two main shortcomings; the lack of a longitudinal perspective and the lack of analyses that take more than one socializing context into consideration simultaneously. At the time of the grant proposal, this meant limited knowledge about, among other things, the interplay between various socializing contexts (parents, friends, classmates, etc.) in producing prejudice, but also when during adolescence specific influences are important.
Against this backdrop, the project set out to examine the relationship between different socializing contexts and the development of prejudice in adolescence. As for the interplay between different social influences, two questions guided the analyses; 1. What is the relative influence of peers, parents, and intergroup contact on the development of prejudice during adolescence? 2. How do parents, peers and intergroup contact interact to produce prejudice?
The project was carried out as planned, and in line with the aim as stated in the original proposal. Using quantitative methods adapted for longitudinal data, we examined the social foundations of prejudice by making use of existing data on attitudes of adolescents, their friends and parents in Sweden, and in the latter part of the project also in other national contexts (Germany, Czech Republic ). Throughout the studies, prejudice was operationalized through negative attitudes towards immigrants. Besides the two main research questions, individual studies also addressed related topics, for example how social influences occur and the role of socializing contexts beyond parents and close friends. Still, the focus has consistently been social foundations of prejudice.
Three most important results and contributions
While friends generally become more important in adolescence, this does not necessarily occur at the expense of parents. Through simultaneous and longitudinal analyzes of the influence of parents and friends, we found that parents' attitudes remain important for the level and development of prejudice even in late adolescence, and that parents’ influence occurs independent of friends' attitudes. The influence is primarily gradual, as young people over time converge towards their parents’ prejudice. Concerning the relative importance of parents’ and peers’ prejudice, we found that their direct effects on adolescents’ attitudes are equally strong. Meanwhile, parental prejudice also predicts the choice of friends, which suggest an overall greater importance for parental bias. In this sense, the project contributes by showing that parents influence adolescents’ prejudice both through gradual long-term socialization, and through managing their children's social world. Taken together, this makes parents key actors in relation to prejudice development, even during a time when social relationships with peers are highly valued.
The project has also contributed to a greater understanding of the role of intergroup contact, and in particular of more long-term consequences of interethnic contact in school. The project demonstrates that classroom diversity in junior high school is important for the establishment of interethnic friendships, both in the short- and long-term. A more diverse classroom implies more heterogenous networks, a difference which persists two years after the adolescents in our study had left junior high school and entered new classrooms. The longitudinal approach implies an important contribution as it sheds light on the longevity of the relationships, a perspective largely missing in previous research. Contrary to theoretical expectations, classroom diversity had only a limited (temporary) direct effect on prejudicial attitudes. Instead, we found that classroom diversity primarily affects prejudice through how it interacts with other socializing factors, both through promoting interethnic friendships which in turn affects prejudice and through moderating the impact of parental prejudice.
The project also calls for a broadened understanding of friends’ role. While previous research has shown that friends are important both for the level and development in prejudice, the project contributes to the knowledge of how such influences occur, including about which peer relationships are important. For example, we found that political discussions with friends affect how prejudice develops in adolescence. In line with theories of deliberative democracy, discussions are important per se, but they also interact with friends’ attitudes in how they primarily transmit positive immigrant attitudes. As for the scope of peer influence, the project shows that adolescents not necessarily need to be close friends to influence each other’s prejudice. Classmates are also important, not only in terms of their prejudicial attitudes, but also in terms of the general classroom climate. Adolescents in classrooms with a more open and inclusive climate generally develop more positive attitudes towards immigrants, compared to adolescents in classrooms with a less open climate. Although a cooperative classroom climate theoretically can be expected to be most effective in diverse classrooms, as it promotes common identities and reduces tensions, the relationship was independent of ethnic heterogeneity. Taken together, our findings show that while close friends are paramount, we need to broaden the understanding of peer influence. This to include others who adolescents interact with on a regular basis, as well as how they interact with each other. As for the latter, our results point specifically to the importance of an open and cooperative climate that also stimulates discussions about societal and political issues.
New research questions
One question that has arisen related to the project concerns how young people’s prejudice is influenced by larger social contexts, for example local/national political, economic and demographic developments. Given how research in this area is still in its infancy, we lack knowledge about if, and if so how, such factors influence adolescents’ prejudice. While the project in itself implies limited opportunities to pursue such questions, we consider this an important area for future research. Another new research question concerns the link between attitudes and action, and specifically what explains youth radical political activism, something which will be studied in a future project. Further, the current project has also made clear the lack of a coherent theoretical framework addressing the interplay between different socializing contexts in relation to prejudice formation. Within the project, we have primarily identified the problem, in a book chapter that synthesizes the existing, although still limited, literature on how different social influences interact with regard to prejudice development in adolescence. In the chapter we emphasize the need of an integrative approach, in the form of theory development and studies that take such an interplay into account, and discuss how this would contribute to the knowledge of how prejudice is formed and can be reduced.
International dimension and dissemination of results
The results from the project have mainly been disseminated through publications in international scientific journals (see list below, all open access) and through participation in international conferences. For example, 19th European Conference on Developmental Psychology, 16th conference of the European Association for Research on Adolescence, International Metropolis 2017 conference, 25th Biennial Congress of the International Society for the Study of Behavioral Development, 6th conference European Network for Social and Emotional Competence. Research collaborations and exchanges have also taken place with researchers in and outside Sweden, mainly in the Netherlands, Germany and Poland. This includes a research stay for Marta Miklikowska at Utrecht University (2019-2020). To communicate our research outside the research community, we have given public lectures, lectured for teachers and written popular science texts (see listed below).